Judging Cold-War morality

The CIA's Doolittle Report, an internal document issued in 1954, argued that America should not be limited by outdated moral constructions in this new environment: "it is now clear that we are facing an implacable enemy whose avowed objective is world domination by whatever means and at whatever cost. There are no rules in such a game. Hitherto acceptable norms of human conduct do not apply. If the United States is to survive, long-standing American concepts of 'fair play' must be reconsidered." We’ve talked some about the role of morality in foreign policy. As we move through the chart below, think about the following:

--to what extent do we expect America to behave more morally than other nations?

--to what extent do we think America should behave at least as well as other nations?

--to what extent do we think morality was irrelevant to the conduct of foreign policy, given postwar Soviet conduct?

Think about Stone's "Mr. Smith Pleads for Peace" as well.

Rather than being vague, let’s answer in specifics. Let’s think through this list of US and Soviet actions, covert and overt, in the 50s and early 60s. We can work out the standards of judgment.

Guatemala Guatemalan dictator Jorge Ubico, who had cut a deal with United Fruit in the 1930s to let it have 42% of Guatemala's land without paying taxes or import duties, resigns in face of reform demands by students; replaced by democratic gov’t led by Juan José Arévalo that preaches “spiritual socialism”: “Our socialism aims to liberate men psychologically, to return to all the psychological and spiritual integrity that has been denied them by conservatism and liberalism.” US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother Allen, future head of the CIA, had been partners in the law firm Sullivan and Cromwell, which brokered the deal. New constitution allows workers to strike and unionize, but does not aim for land reform (in 1950, 2.2% of population owns 75% land--22 owners hold more land than 250,000 peasant families). United Fruit owns 550,000 acres in Guatemala , making it by far the country’s largest landowner (c.20% arable land), 85% of which it leaves unused; also owns almost all railroad track, telephone and telegraph lines, and only Atlantic port.	1944	Iran
	1945	Truman confronts USSR over refusal to remove troops from Azerbaijan , on NW border of Iran (see map). Soviets support Azeri independence movement, led by former Comintern agent. In exchange for agreement to let majlis (Iranian parliament) vote on oil concessions for USSR in N. Iran , Stalin evacuates troops May 1946. (Dec. 1946, majlis votes 102-2 against concessions.)	Soviet Treatment of Eastern Europe
	1948		Feb.: Communist coup in Czechoslovakia : even though Czech Communists ran well in 1946 elections (membership of 1.3M in nation of 12M), USSR distrusts electoral process and overthrows existing government, installing subservient Communist government. Precursor to installation of “replica states” throughout Eastern Europe; except for Yugoslavia, by 1949 every E. Eur. country has Soviet-model government, secret police and economy (85-98% government-owned) and helps balance USSR’s books through “fraternal aid” (or “reparations” from Hungary, East Germany and Romania, former Nazi allies). “Show trials” 1948-54 purge former fascists as well as democratic opposition, independent judges, and churches: in USSR in early 50s, 1.7M prisoners in labor camps, 800,000 in labor colonies, 2.75M in “special settlements." 81,000 prisoners die in these camps, 1945; 30,000, 1946; 66,000, 1947; 50,000, 1948. map of gulags (labor camps) in the Soviet Union, 1951 22% of Bulgarian workforce is slave labor; 100,000 political prisoners in Czechoslovakia , early 1950s; Hungary , 1948-53: est. 1M arrested, prosecuted, imprisoned or deported; Romania : more than 1M in prisons and slave-labor camps. Stalin dies 1953, plotting last pogrom against Jews. Historian Tony Judt: “The Communist state was in a permanent condition of undeclared war against its own citizens.” (Postwar, p.192)
Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán succeeds Arévalo, winning nearly 80% of vote over UF- and Guatemalan army-backed candidate who runs on basis of defending Guatemala from “red attack.” CIA is ambivalent, predicting that while Arbenz “was elected as a Leftist,” “it is reasonable to suppose that his ambition is greater than his idealism…”	1950		Jan.: USSR gives green light to N. Korean dictator Kim Il-Sung to invade S. Korea, banking that US will not respond. US does, leading UN forces in Korean War and furthering creation of “national security state”: defense budget is $15.5B in Aug., 1950, $70B in Dec., 1951. Defense spending is 4.7% GNP, 1949, 17.8%, 1952.
Arbenz moves left, pushing for land reform: takes uncultivated land from estates >224 acres, pays off landowners in long-term bonds. This will affect 0.5% of private estates in country. UF is obviously major target: 400,000+ of its 550K acres aren’t being cultivated. Guatemala offers “fair compensation”: $2.99/acre, based on UF’s valuation of land for tax purposes ($1M compensation); UF demands +$75/acre ($16M compensation). Company had paid $1.48/acre in 1930s. Land redistribution puts 1M+ acres in hands of 100,000 families--c.500K people.	1951	British refuse to rewrite revenue deal in Iran: deal calls for 84% of revenue to go to Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (AIOC), 16% to Iran (deal simultaneously being rewritten in Saudi Arabia for 50/50 revenue sharing; AIOC makes more profit in 1950 alone than it had paid to Iran in previous 50 years). When AIOC refuses—in face of suggestions that they do so in British Foreign Office—Iranian prime minister Mossadegh nationalizes oil company. Jan. 1952, Time names him “Man of the Year”: an “obstinate opportunist” but also “the Iranian George Washington.” Article depicts him in Orientalist manner as fairy-tale evil ruler: "Once upon a time, in a mountainous land between Baghdad and the Sea of Caviar, there lived a nobleman. This nobleman, after a lifetime of carping at the way the kingdom was run, became Chief Minister of the realm. In a few months he had the whole world hanging on his words and deeds, his jokes, his tears, his tantrums. Behind his grotesque antics lay great issues of peace or war, progress or decline, which would affect many lands far beyond his mountains....In foreign affairs, the minister pursued a very active policy—so active that in the chancelleries of nations thousands of miles away, lamps burned late into the night as other governments tried to find a way of satisfying his demands without ruining themselves. Not that he ever threatened war. His weapon was the threat of his own political suicide, as a wilful little boy might say, 'If you don't give me what I want I'll hold my breath until I'm blue in the face. Then you'll be sorry.'" In this way, the old nobleman became the most world-renowned man his ancient race had produced for centuries. In this way, too, he increased the danger of a general war among nations, impoverished his country and brought it and some neighboring lands to the very brink of disaster. Brits prepare covert-action plan (as well as bribes, assassinations, military invasions), but US refuses to support it; plans will come in handy for 1953, however.
Guatemalan agrarian reform bill distributes land to 500k people (1/6 pop). United Fruit officials write State Dept. that this redistribution is part of a Communist plan “to clear the country of all American enterprises.” Both Secretary of State JF Dulles and his brother, CIA head Allen, had worked for law firm that represented UF. Many gov’t functionaries also have ties to UF. On the other hand, Justice Dept. is pursuing monopoly suit against UF (held in abeyance 1953-54) and breaks it up after 1954.	1952	Oct., Mossadegh expels British embassy and all personnel, including secret agents planning coup. After Eisenhower elected, Brits approach Americans, arguing Mossadegh is leading Iran into Communist orbit. Tudeh, Iranian Communist party, is flourishing but excluded from government.
Arbenz continues with land reform, irritates US by allowing official newspaper to charge US with germ warfare in Korean War, observing 1 min. silence in National Assembly for Stalin’s death. Communists hold no more than 4 seats of 61 in Assembly, probably a few hundred adherents nationwide. No Communists in Arbenz cabinet, though 2 are close advisers. Communists are barred from police, army, foreign ministry; Ike admin estimates CP membership at 1000; both leaders of Guatemala support US in Korean War; 80% of its imports go to US. Nonetheless, US assumptions 1) Arbenz is a Communist 2) he’s being directed from Moscow . (No evidence has surfaced to support this; no evidence of Soviet interest in Guatemala , either. Declassified Soviet documents show it essentially accepting Monroe Doctrine, ironically enough. State Department, coining "if it walks like a duck" analogy, concludes that Arbenz might as well be a Communist.) US also worried about “nationalist domino effect”: Guatemala will lead other countries in similar direction. In Dec., encouraged by State Dept. and by Guatemalan landowners, church, and disaffected military men, CIA authorizes $4.5M for overthrow of Arbenz. Works with dictators of Nicaragua and Honduras, both of whom want Arbenz overthrown as well, and let US build airstrips.	1953	Eisenhower wonders in cabinet meeting why US couldn’t “get some of the people in these downtrodden countries to like us instead of hating us.” Sec. of State Dulles argues that even if Mossadegh is no Communist, his removal from power by others might create a vacuum allowing Communists in; therefore, US should overthrow him sooner rather than later. Aug.: US-paid demonstrators, strongmen, crooks, paid to celebrate Mossadegh and Communism by US, throng streets, “fought” by “patriots,” police and military (also paid by US), leading to Mossadegh’s abdication. Mossadegh’s house is captured, looted, and set afire. Mossadegh is sent into internal exile for the remainder of his life. Shah of Iran retakes throne, rules until 1979, when he is overthrown by an Islamist revolution.	June-July: USSR invades East Germany to crush workers’ rebellion (400,000 on strike) against Soviet-mandated pay cuts, killing between 51 (official estimate) and 270 with T34 tanks and death sentences. Later a state holiday in West Germany.
In June, coup succeeds and Arbenz flees to Mexico City for asylum. US considers this a success, which influences thinking and planning for Bay of Pigs, 1960-61, with catastrophic results.	1954
Dec.: Fidel Castro and followers land in Cuba, hoping to promulgate revolution against dictator Fulgencio Batista	1956		Feb.: In "secret speech," new Soviet premier Nikita Khruschev denounces Stalin for his "cult of personality," repression of dissent, purges, and unjust persecution of old Bolsheviks. Oct.-Nov.: USSR crushes democratic reform movement in Hungary, again with tanks; c. 3000 killed; 22,000 sentenced to prison, 13,000 sent to internment camps as punishment for “counter-revolutionary activities”; c. 200,000 people (2% pop.) flee the country.
Castro’s forces take control of Cuba ; Batista flees.	1959